Glossary

DHA, ALA, MUFA… 

The world of Omega-3 is filled with complicated scientific terms and acronyms that are inaccessible to most people. 

So we thought we’d create a glossary that translates this complex language into words you can easily understand and remember. So, here’s your gateway to the world of Omega-3. 

Cultivate your curiosity. Nourish your well-being. 

Fatty acids
Let's start with the basics. Fatty acids are compounds made up of a carbon chain made up of carbon atoms (up to 30, usually between 14 and 22) to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are attached.  

We can divide them into 3 categories:  

• Saturated fatty acids (SFAs): solid at room temperature. They are characterized by a linear shape that allows them to form compact structures 

• Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA): liquid, but ready to solidify when the thermometer drops. Their carbon chain is more flexible because it contains a double bond. The presence of the double bond generates a bending that causes the molecule to occupy more space. For this reason, the structures that form are less compact. 

• Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA): always liquid, even in the freezer! Their chain contains more double bonds , consequently they form even less compact structures than MUFA. 

These are the main components of triglycerides and phospholipids.  

The degree of unsaturation (i.e. the presence of double bonds between two carbon atoms) is not just a chemical curiosity: this distinction is of great interest to those of us who care about your well-being. Excessive consumption of saturated fats, in fact, is associated with high levels of cholesterol, precisely because of their ability to form compact structures. While, on the contrary, eating polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as those found in fish oils, lowers cholesterol levels.  

Essential fatty acids
Fundamental. Here's what they are, in a nutshell. These are polyunsaturated fatty acids that play a very important role in your well-being.  

These are divided into 2 main categories: Omega-3 and Omega-6. The numbers 3 and 6 are not random, but refer to the position of the first double bond in the carbon chain, counting from the end of the molecule. The term "omega", on the other hand, comes from the last letter of the Greek alphabet and is used in the scientific field to define an extremity.  

Your body is able to synthesize many types of fats from basic elements, such as glucose and amino acids. This process, called “de novo” synthesis, does not occur, however, in the case of essential fatty acids, which cannot be produced by our body and must therefore be introduced through diet or supplementation.  

Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA)
Flexibility. This is a key word when we talk about monounsaturated fatty acids.  

Their carbon chain contains a double bond between two carbon atoms that is not saturated by hydrogen atoms. Hence the term “unsaturated”. This particular configuration gives MUFAs a very interesting characteristic: flexibility. The presence of the double bond allows the chain to deform more freely in space.  

A distinctive feature of MUFAs is their behavior in response to temperature: at room temperature they are liquid, as temperatures drop they tend to solidify. Think about how olive oil (which contains oleic acid, monounsaturated) behaves: it is liquid at room temperature, and tends to solidify in the freezer.  

Omega-3 fatty acids
Let's get to our big protagonists: Omega-3, a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that are abundant in fish oils. Their unique structure, with the first double bond at the third carbon atom, makes them precious for our well-being, because:  

• They make cell membranes more fluid, allowing vital exchanges and effective intercellular communication. 

• They control inflammatory reactions. 

• They help the body fight external aggressions. 

• They keep the blood fluid, preventing the formation of clots. 

EPA, DHA and ALA are the main members of this family.  

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)
Imagine a seed that grows into a lush forest: ALA is the seed for long-chain Omega-3s.  

This essential fatty acid, of mainly vegetal origin, is found in some algae, green legumes and seeds such as flax. Once introduced into our body, ALA is transformed into EPA and DHA, two precious long-chain fatty acids – a conversion that is anything but simple and not always efficient.  

Chemically, its carbon chain contains 18 carbon atoms and 3 double bonds: C18:3n-3. The value immediately following the C indicates the number of carbon atoms in the essential fatty acid, while the value following the colon indicates how many double bonds are present in the molecule.  

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)
Eicosapentaenoic acid is born from a conversion: ALA is partially transformed into EPA, ready to take action with more direct and powerful effects. EPA is in fact the precursor of a class of molecules (series 3 eicosanoids) that participate in the fight against infections, inflammation and cancer cells.  

Looking closely at its “molecular anatomy”, we see that it contains 20 carbon atoms and 5 double bonds (C20:5n-3). 

Studies reveal that the efficiency of EPA synthesis from ALA is actually very low: only 5-10% of ALA is converted to EPA. That's why, if you really want to benefit from all the power of eicosapentaenoic acid, it's best to take it already transformed, without having your body synthesize it. 

But the game of conversions and synthesis does not end here: when EPA is abundant, it is in turn partially transformed into DHA, docosahexaenoic acid. EPA and DHA are both present, in nature, in fish oil. 

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
Extraordinary. We call it that because this Omega-3 fatty acid is involved in the lipid composition of cell membranes, especially in the lipids of the brain, sperm and retina. And in newborns it plays an even more crucial role because, if present in abundance in breast milk, it helps the brain develop.  

Its chemical formula is C22:6n-3. The carbon chain therefore contains 22 carbon atoms and 6 double bonds.  

DHA is created through a series of transformations that start with EPA. The interesting thing is that, using the same enzymes that created it, DHA can be transformed back into EPA. However, the process is complicated and inefficient. For this reason, dietary supplementation of DHA alone (without EPA) does not have as powerful an effect as supplementation of EPA.  

Let us remember that our body needs both of these Omega-3 fatty acids to maintain a state of well-being: while DHA is involved in the structure of cells, EPA has a more direct and targeted action on the balance of physiological reactions. 

Omega-6 fatty acids
They are essential, just like Omega-3s, but they have a different role.  

Omega-6 fatty acids are essential for structuring cell membranes and act on the balance of the body's physiological reactions. Not only that: they are also precursors of molecules that promote inflammatory reactions (pro-inflammatory eicosanoids). These reactions are important for the correct functioning of our body, provided that the presence of Omega-6 is balanced by Omega-3 fatty acids (especially EPA, which has a stabilizing function).  

In fact, if there is an imbalance, you can experience excessive inflammatory reactions (such as arthritis) or even give rise to some autoimmune diseases – the immune system fights against the body by producing antibodies against normal tissues. 

The key to optimal health therefore lies in the right balance between these two groups of fatty acids.  

The 3 main Omega-6 fatty acids are linoleic acid (LA), gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), and arachidonic acid (AA). 

Linoleic acid (LA)
Think of a drop of oil: well, there's a good chance it contains a good dose of LA.  

Linoleic acid, the precursor to long-chain omega-6 fatty acids , is found in most vegetable oils (it is not present in olive oil, flaxseed oil, and canola oil) and is abundant in corn.  

Under the microscope, it appears as a carbon chain containing 18 carbon atoms and 2 double bonds (C18:2).  

Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)
We are faced with the result of the enzymatic transformation of linoleic acid: our organism in fact transforms LA into GLA, an acid with known therapeutic and nutritional properties.  

GLA is found in several plant sources (such as blackcurrant) and is available as a dietary supplement in oil form, such as primrose oil or borage oil.  

The structure of GLA is similar to that of LA, but with an additional double bond: 18 carbon atoms and 3 double bonds (C18:3).  

Arachidonic acid (AA)
It is the most abundant essential fatty acid in our body. Its structure? 20 carbon atoms and 4 double bonds.  

It is derived from LA and GLA in food, and is abundant in animal phospholipids. For commercial purposes, it is extracted from liver lipids, but is also found in some ferns and can be produced by fermentation of certain microorganisms. 

But the aspect that interests us most here is its fundamental role in the structure of cell membranes, particularly that of brain neurons. 

AA is also the starting point for the production of series 2 eicosanoids, substances involved in the body's inflammatory response: prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes. These compounds act as short-acting local hormones (autocrine hormones) capable of influencing, very rapidly, neighboring cells. 

Part of the therapeutic activity of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (e.g., aspirin) is in fact attributed to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis and consequently to the metabolism of eicosanoids.  

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA)
Imagine a carbon chain with many carbon-carbon double bonds that are not saturated with hydrogen atoms. This is the structure of PUFAs. And it is because of this structure that these fatty acids are so flexible and remain liquid even at low temperatures. Properties that make them unique in the world of fats.  

This flexibility is in fact fundamental for cell membranes: it allows them to function optimally.  

Saturated fatty acids (SFA)
Now imagine a carbon chain where each ring is surrounded (saturated) by hydrogen atoms: this structure makes SFAs particularly rigid. And this rigidity is the reason why fats like butter are solid at room temperature.  

This structure has an effect on cell membranes, making communication and exchanges more difficult: it is as if cells were talking through a thick wall instead of a thin curtain. A condition that does not favor the maintenance of a good physiological balance.  

Cholesterol
In the blood, muscles, liver, brain... Cholesterol, which is part of the lipid family, is found practically everywhere. 

It is part of the structure of many membranes and influences their flexibility. This, perhaps, is known. Less known is its role as a synthetic precursor of very important hormones, such as sexual hormones, adrenaline and cortisol.  

Where does cholesterol come from? It is produced in our bodies, especially in the liver, and also comes from food (from meat, dairy products, seafood, and fish). 

As always, the key to well-being is balance: the right amount of cholesterol is necessary to maintain good health, while an excess could become harmful. 

Dioxins
Dangerous, persistent, capable of infiltrating anywhere. 

Dioxins are chemical compounds made up of 4 carbon atoms and 2 oxygen atoms, with 2 double bonds forming a ring. 

Let’s get this straight: the term “dioxin” is misused to refer to the toxic compound TCDD (which is much more toxic than cyanide and strychnine). In non-lethal doses, it can cause a disfiguring skin disease called chloracne. 

Dioxins themselves are polluting industrial by-products that persist in the environment for a long time and, because of their solubility in fats, can enter the food chain (they accumulate, for example, in fish tissues). Studies have shown that prolonged exposure to this substance (for example, if contaminated fish is regularly consumed) can cause damage to the nervous system, weaken the immune system and increase the incidence of miscarriages.  

Not only that: dioxin has been found to be teratogenic, that is, capable of causing fetal malformations in small animals and, although less frequently, also in children. For all these reasons, it has been classified as a probable carcinogen (in the laboratory, a higher incidence of liver and lung cancer has been observed).  

A dramatic example of the impact of dioxin is the Seveso accident. In 1976, the explosion of a chemical plant released an estimated amount of dioxin into the atmosphere between 22 and 132 tons. The toxic cloud caused the death of many animals and many people suffered from dermatitis. Studies conducted years later also revealed long-term effects, such as problems with the development of teeth in children and a weakening of the immune system. 

Eicosanoids
Did you know that éikosi, in Greek, means 20?
Eicosanoids are molecules composed of 20 carbon atoms (from which they take their name) that derive from polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly arachidonic acid.  

These molecules are responsible for communication between cells and act as hormones with local action; therefore, they control inflammatory processes in our body.  

The most studied eicosanoids are undoubtedly prostaglandins. There are more than 30 types, divided into 3 families: PG1 and PG2 derive from Omega-6 fats (whose progenitor is linoleic acid), PG3 from Omega-3 fats (whose progenitor is linolenic acid).  

The most valuable prostaglandins, those that have the greatest effect on health, are PG1 and PG2. The former (especially PGE1) perform the following functions:  

• they lower blood pressure, promote the removal of sodium, fight water retention; 

• they protect against the onset of blood clots and heart attacks; 

• inhibit the inflammatory response; 

• improve insulin function and keep blood sugar levels constant; 

• regulate calcium metabolism; 

• improve the functioning of the nervous system and the immune system. 

PG2s, on the other hand, have a dual nature, good and bad: PGE2 can cause water retention, platelet aggregation, inflammation and increased blood pressure, while PGI2 is the “good sister” that acts in a similar way to PGE1.  

It is interesting to note how evolution has influenced the role of these substances. When man was still a hunter, eicosanoids such as PGE2 could certainly save him in difficult situations (for example, helping him to heal wounds). Today, when we live in an era of well-being and sedentary lifestyle, they can instead become enemy substances .  

Foreign
When an acid and an alcohol react, a chemical compound called an “ester” is obtained. The world of esters is divided into ethyl esters and glyceryl esters: the former are made of ethanol, the latter of glycerol.  

The name of these compounds follows a very simple rule: you take the name of the acid and change the ending to “ate”. And so acetic acid becomes, for example, ethyl acetate.  

The most fascinating part of these compounds is their scent, which is reminiscent of fruit. For this reason, they are used to create synthetic aromas.  

Phospholipids 

Phosphorus. It is the main component of these lipids formed by a carbon chain that contains, precisely, one or more phosphorus atoms. 

Think of phospholipids as the building blocks that make up the walls of your cells: these lipids are in fact essential constituents of cell membranes.  

Lipids
They are insoluble in the aqueous environment of the cell (they prefer organic solvents such as ether or benzene), are lighter than water and have a low melting point. 

Let's talk about lipids, a heterogeneous group of compounds that share these characteristics. The main one is their low solubility in water, which makes them perfect for carrying out one of their most important biological functions: constituting the structural element of the membranes that surround cells and separate them into various compartments. 

In order, we can divide the large family of lipids into two main categories: 

• Simple lipids: Made up exclusively of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. An example? Triglycerides. 

• Complex lipids: contain, in addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, also nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur. An example? Phospholipids. 

Where do these precious molecular builders come from? We find them in both animal-based food products (butter, dairy products, meat) and plant-based food products (oils, nuts, olives).  

Mercury
A shiny silver sphere, liquid at room temperature, elusive, extremely ductile. We are talking about mercury (Hg), a metal that in nature is found in the form of droplets adhering to cinnabar or in the mineral.  

Versatile like few others, it lends itself to a thousand uses: from the creation of explosives to the manufacture of barometers. Yet it is a toxic metal and a pollutant that silently enters the food chain: traces of mercury are found in most fish and shellfish.  

In water, mercury is converted into methylmercury, a powerful neurotoxin. When we eat contaminated fish, methylmercury accumulates in the bloodstream and can cause serious damage, such as oxidation of cholesterol and increased risk of heart attack in susceptible individuals. In addition, the substance remains in the tissues and, in pregnant women, can pass to the fetus, with potential consequences for the child's ability to learn and memory.  

An interesting study conducted in eight European countries and Israel has highlighted the relationship between the levels of mercury present in the toenails, the DHA present in the adipose tissue and the risk of myocardial infarction. They analyzed 684 men who had been given a first diagnosis of myocardial infarction, and another 724 men who constituted the control group.  

The results are clear: the level of mercury detected in the body is directly linked to the risk of suffering a heart attack. A high percentage of mercury can therefore compromise the cardioprotective effect of fish consumption.  

Polychlorobenzenes
Heat exchangers in transformers, plasticizers for the production of polystyrene objects, printing inks, additives for pesticides, fixing agents in the microscope, flame retardants.  

There are many uses for polychlorobenzenes (PCBs). We are talking about a class of organic compounds made up of chlorine atoms (from 1 to 10) linked to 2 benzenes. Benzene (C6H6) is a hydrocarbon made up of 6 carbon atoms and 6 hydrogen atoms, each placed at the vertex of a regular hexagon, joined by a single bond that alternates with a double one.  

Precisely because of their stability, PCBs are incredibly resistant and degrade very slowly. Furthermore, since they are not soluble in water, they go up the food chain until they reach us. 

Consider that a fish swimming in contaminated waters has PCB levels 100 to 100,000 times higher than those of the water itself. Fish are in fact real sponges that absorb all the substances present in the sea: they concentrate in their adipose tissues the fatty acids derived from algae (long-chain Omega-3 EPA and DHA) but also toxic substances such as mercury, PCBs and dioxins.  

Health effects? Experimental evidence shows that prolonged exposure to high levels of PCBs can cause damage to the liver, skin barrier, kidneys, stomach and thyroid in people.  

A group of researchers also examined the health of children born to women who regularly ate fish contaminated with polychlorobenzenes from Lake Michigan. Compared to the control group, these children were three times more likely to have lower than average IQs, and twice as likely to have learning and reading difficulties. 

Triglycerides
Do you know how much lipids a mammal can contain? An amount between 5 and 25%, or more, of its body weight. Over 90% of these lipids are fats.  

In living beings, fatty acids are stored mainly in the form of triglycerides, i.e. fats. The latter are made up of a glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules that can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated.  

But where are these fats stored? In specialized cells called adipocytes (almost their entire volume is filled by a single drop of fat). These cells constitute the adipose tissue of animals, a reserve of fats that is very important for the production of energy, heat and thermal insulation.